During his first term as President, George Washington declared that developing Native American policy was one of his highest priorities, explaining that "The Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity.1 The Washington administration's initial policy toward Native Americans was enunciated in June of 1789. Washington managed relationships with various nations through the Secretary of War, Congress, various commissioners, and state governments.
Policies Following the American Revolution
Secretary of War Henry Knox believed that the Continental Congress had needlessly provoked Native Americans following the Revolution by insisting on American possession of all territory east of the Mississippi River. This created tension with former allies to the British as well as those allied with the Continental Army. Congress had previously argued that by supporting the British during the war Native Americans had forfeited any claim to territory on the western frontier of American settlement. However, this perspective ignored the fact that only a portion of tribes had actually supported the British. The land rights of Indigenous people were not recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783), which concluded the war.
In 1787, the Confederation Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance, opening the Ohio Valley to new American settlement. Members of the Western Lakes Confederacy reacted by utilizing armed resistance to protect their land, which led to violence.
Native American Policy Under Washington’s Administration
After the ratification of the Constitution, these events increased the urgency for Washington to develop a formal method for managing relationships with Native American nations. In referring to the constitutional grant of treaty-making powers to the chief executive—with the "advice and consent" of the Senate—Washington declared that a similar practice should also apply to agreements with Native Americans. The Senate acceded to the President's wishes and accepted treaties as the basis for conducting Indian relations.
In response, Congress proceeded to approve a treaty with "seven northern tribes" (the Shawnee, Miami, Ottawa, Chippewa, Iroquois, Sauk, and Fox). This agreement, however, lacked meaningful protection of their land claims. To the seven northern tribes, this ineffectual treaty and the constant intrusion into their lands by droves of settlers meant that the American government had little control over its own citizens. Members of these nations believed it was necessary to deploy force to prevent further incursions.
Washington's desire to protect American citizens led to an American military response. In 1790 and 1791, Washington dispatched armies to confront Native forces, and in both instances the Americans were soundly defeated. Responding to these two embarrassing setbacks, Congress authorized a five-thousand-man regular army to quell resistance. Led by General "Mad Anthony" Wayne, the Legion inflicted a crushing defeat on the Indian confederation in the Summer of 1794. This decisive battle and the ensuing Treaty of Greenville brought a tentative peace to the northwest in 1795.
Simultaneously, as momentous events in the north unfolded, Washington also faced challenges from nations south of the Ohio River. For the Cherokee Nation, and the more distant Choctaws and Chickasaws, Washington sought messages of assurance, friendship, and plans for trade. Washington regarded Creek Nation with considerable apprehension because of their disagreement with the state of Georgia's interpretation of three treaties that had been negotiated by that state during the 1780s. These treaties included significant cessions of land from the Creeks to Georgia that the nation did not recognize.
The Creeks' leader was Alexander McGillivray, a mixed-race chief who spoke fluent English. Twenty-eight Creek chiefs led by McGillivray accepted Washington's invitation to travel to New York in the summer of 1790 to negotiate a new treaty. The result was the Treaty of New York which restored to the Creeks some of the lands ceded in the treaties with Georgia, and provided generous annuities for the rest of the land.
Washington desired nations to assimilate to American society and culture.2 Assimilation policies appeared in treaties such as the Treaty of New York. Under the policy tribal members would be given "useful domestic animals and implements of husbandry" to encourage them to become "herdsman and cultivators" instead of "remaining in a state as hunters."3 In August 1790, the Creek chiefs formally approved the Treaty of New York. Creek leaders agreed to place themselves under the protection of the United States. In return, the United States confirmed the sanctity of the Creek land lying within the boundaries defined by the treaty. However, the Treaty of New York failed to achieve its goals, as the federal government could not stem the relentless incursion of American settlers onto "protected" lands.
In a letter to Washington, Knox agonized over the possibility of various nations ceasing to exist. He observed that in the most populous areas of the United States, some groups had already been decimated. "If the same causes continue," he explained, "the same effects will happen and in a short period the idea of an Indian on this side of the Mississippi will only be found in the page of the historian."4
Washington and Knox initiated agreements that promised to protect the land of various Native American nations, but these did not ultimately aid in fortifying their land claims in the future. Many of these agreements revealed political desires to assimilate Indigenous people into American society, but through measures in which they would discontinue their cultural practices. Washington and Knox believed that if they failed in creating agreeable boundaries with Native American nations, their chances of convincing Native Americans to take up Euro-American lifestyles and economies would be undermined.
However, Americans continued to migrate west, pouring into and encroaching past boundaries of Native American nations and areas of control. Further, individual settlers sought to buy land from Native American land owners, undermining diplomatic measures to ensure protections on Native American lands. By 1796, even Washington had concluded that holding back the avalanche of settlers had become nearly impossible, writing that "I believe scarcely anything short of a Chinese wall, or a line troops, will restrain Land jobbers, and the encroachment of settlers upon the Indian territory."5
Native American policy under the Washington administration navigated a post-war North America, relationships with former allies and adversaries, and the constant pressure of Americans desiring western lands. Washington approach Native American policy through direct involvement, and through messages encouraging assimilation. In his second term, he understood the need for permanent positions to assist in these relationships and lead assimilation efforts after his tenure. Ultimately, he appointed U.S. Indian Agents who were assigned to specific nations or regions to better manage relationships with Native Americans.
Richard Harless George Mason University, updated by Zoie Horecny, Ph.D.
Notes:
1. “From George Washington to the Cherokee Nation, 29 August 1796,” Founders Online, National Archives
2.”From George Washington to the Commissioners to the Southern Indians, 29 August 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives.
3. “From George Washington to the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives, 7 December 1796,” Founders Online, National Archives.
4. "Henry Knox to George Washington, 7 July 1789," Founders Online, National Archives.
5. “From George Washington to Timothy Pickering, 1 July 1796,” Founders Online, National Archives.
Bibliography:
Abbot, W.W. "George Washington, the West, and the Union." Indiana Magazine of History 84 (March 1988): 3-14.
Ferling, John. The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009.
Kappler, Charles J. Indians Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, Treaties (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904), 2:28.
McDonnell, Michael A. Masters of Empire: Great Lakes Indians and the Making of America. New York: Hill and Wang, 2015.
Saunt, Claudio. Unworthy Republic: The Dispossession of Native Americans and the Road to Indian Territory. W.W. Norton: 2020.
