Continental Army

As Major General and Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, George Washington won the military struggle for American Independence. Remarkably, however, Washington's army won only three of the nine major battles that he oversaw, and the army was often retreating when facing larger forces. Even some of the Army's victories were more strategic than measurable in military terms, but ultimately the Continental Army contained the British and ensured American victory. Washington was instrumental in ensuring the success of the Continental Army on the battlefield and in advocating for their material needs as an army.

The Formation of the Continental Army

Despite these various problems and disadvantages, Washington led an army that defeated the world's premier war machine of its day. Historians have praised Washington for his choice and supervision of the generals, how he encouraged morale, and held together the army. His close coordination with governors and state militias, his cooperative relations with Congress, and his professional attention to supplies, logistics, and training all contributed to the success of the Continental Army.

The Army was formed by the Continental Congress in 1775 after the outbreak of the American Revolution. Washington served as Commander-in-Chief of the army throughout the War.¹ A trained, experienced leader during the Seven Years’ War, Washington was the logical choice to lead the Continental Army. Additionally, Washington was involved in local politics as a former member of the House of Burgesses and emerging leader of the American Revolution. 

When Washington assumed command, the Continental Army there were no established protocols for exercising coordinated authority, for supplying and feeding the troops, for transportation, or any other of the myriad tasks necessary for a field army. Because eighteenth century communication could be challenging, gaining the Continental Congress' required approval could take long periods of time.

Despite these impediments, Washington organized this amalgamation into three divisions, six brigades, and thirty-eight regiments. He also oversaw organizational changes to make the Continental Army more effective. Washington believed longer enlistments were needed to ensure the success of the Army, writing “It will be a very necessary attention to avoid the danger of Short enlistments—the service should be limited only by the expedition or a term amply competent to it—otherwise we may be exposed to having their engagements expire at some interesting or perhaps critical juncture.”² Washington encouraged Congress to lengthen enlistment terms and ordered states to contribute regiments in proportion to their population to best fight the British.

Early Setbacks

Managing various regiments of state militias across multiple warfronts provided a challenge to Washington and for the Continental Army. Early in the war, Washington employed Major General Philip Schuyler's ten regiments in New York in an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada. However, Washington managed to force the British out of Boston in the Spring of 1776, but his next tests under fire resulted in defeat. 

The New York Campaign marked defeat for the Continental Army, but their retreat allowed for the army to rebuild its strength. In the summer of 1776, New York was abandoned with Washington himself nearly captured. Fort Washington fell, and most disastrously Fort Lee was so slowly evacuated that the British seized precious cannons, muskets, and supplies. This was a major set back for the Continental Army.

After withdrawing from New York, Washington retreated his army through New Jersey and crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania to put a barrier between the pursuing British troops and his exhausted, dispirited forces. In doing so they, the earned their first major victories in the Battle of Trenton in late 1776 and the Battle of Second Trenton and Battle of Princeton in early 1777. They gained momentum against the British, needed supplies, and experience against Hessian soldiers.

A Turning Point for the Continental Army

While Washington’s army remained intact, they faced more setbacks, as they were unable to force the British out of Philadelphia, despite early attempts to do so such as the Battle of Barren Hill in the Spring of 1777. After Washington’s men suffered losses Battle of Brandywine and Battle of Germantown in the fall of 1777, British forces under General William Howe continued to control the American capital, Philadelphia. 

However, victory in the Battle of Saratoga in upstate New York from September to October of 1777, demonstrated American success to the wider world. Given these forces were under the leadership of General Horatio Gates, some questioned Washington’s effectiveness as Commander-in-Chief. The frequently critical General Charles Lee expressed his desire for General Horatio Gates to replace the general, and attempted to do so in what is known as the Conway Cabal. But Washington reacted calmly and maintained his position, while limiting the military damage. Ultimately, the victory at Saratoga and the efforts of Marquis de Lafayette, led to a formal alliance between the Americans and the French in addition to material support. 

This was a pivotal time for Washington and the Continental Army. During the winter of 1777 to 1778, Washington encamped with his troops at Valley Forge, about twenty miles north of Philadelphia. In enduring this difficult winter, he maintained the position of the Continental Army and effectively trained his men. Baron Friedrich von Steuben, a Prussian military officer, assisted in training the army. This training at Valley Forge was impactful in the Army’s future success. 

They often relied on local communities in order to secure food goods. During this time, Washington often sought support from Congress and nearby states in ensuring pay, food, clothing, and supplies for his men. In requesting states to assist the Continental Army in procuring supplies like clothing, Washington wrote that if troops did not receive needed supplies that they, “will never be in a situation to answer the Public expectation and perform the duties required of them.”³

Alongside the Continental Army at Valley Forge and other encampments were camp followers, which included the wives and sometimes children of those in the Continental Army. They assisted in the functions of camp life to support the troops. Some of these women also fundraised for the needs of the Continental Army, including Martha Washington, who was also with Washington at Valley Forge.

Under Sir Henry Clinton, British troops withdrew from Philadelphia in June of 1778 to better defend New York City. Following British withdrawal and after months of training, the Continental Army demonstrated their tactical strength at the Battle of Monmouth outside of the city. In the following year, the Continental Army began to assault British troops in New York, gaining control of the Hudson River after several key battles through American victory in the Battle of Stony Point in July of 1779. Washington had managed to maintain American positions throughout New England and the middle colonies, despite tactical challenges.

The War in the South

Shifts in British strategy turned the war south, with the British beginning their Southern Strategy to maintain its southern colonies. In the fall of 1779, Americans failed in their attempt to siege Savannah in order to retake the city from the British. By May of 1780, British under Sir Henry Clinton successfully sieged Charleston and occupied the city.

As warfare moved into the southern interior, the Continental Army faced large losses under the leadership of General Horatio Gates. He was officially replaced by Nathanael Greene in October 1780, and the Continental Army began to gain momentum.⁴ Under Greene’s leadership, victory at the Battle of Cowpens in early 1781 was a turning point in the South. While technically a British victory, British forces under General Charles Cornwallis suffered large physical losses in the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in March of 1781. The Continental Army managed to maintain the British position to Charleston, despite British tactical victories, such as at the Battle of Eutaw Springs in 1781.

Path to American Victory

Even on the path to victory, issues never ceased. In 1781, the Continental Congress was struggling financially and had to cut funding dramatically. In addition, citizen support was increasingly tested as the war had waged on for several years. Army desertions occurred as funding lagged to pay soldiers.

However, throughout the states, the Continental Army had been successful in containing the British to the cities in which they occupied such as New York and Charleston. In the summer of 1781, Washington worked with the French Army and Navy to secure crucial positions in the Chesapeake Bay such as in the Battle of the Chesapeake, leaving the British without reinforcements. As the Continental Army was able to stop the expansion of British control into the interior of the south, some of these forces routed north to join Washington, in Yorktown in 1781. This key victory with the aid of the French Army and Navy led to British surrender. The Continental Army dispersed to oversee the withdrawal of the British in various states and cities.

In his 1783 Farewell Order, Washington thanked his officers and men, and hailed the Army's combination of many different states into "one patriotic band of Brothers" as a symbolic pursuit during war or peace.⁵ He returned his commission as Commander-in-Chief on December 23, 1783, to Congress.

After the American Revolution

Although the fighting had ended, those serving in the Continental Army faced challenges in securing pay from Confederation Congress under the Articles of Confederation. They organized under the threat of discontinuing their service if unpaid, in what was known as Newburgh Conspiracy in March of 1783. Despite having already returned his commission, Washington was instrumental in preventing mutiny and ensuring Congress paid them.

After the war, Washington proposed a “regular and standing force,” established arsenals, and a military academy.⁶ Washington argued to Congress, “Altho’ a large standing Army in time of Peace hath ever been considered dangerous to the liberties of a Country, yet a few Troops, under certain circumstances, are not only safe, but indispensably necessary.”⁷ Ultimately, the Confederation Congress rejected his proposal. The American Revolution officially ended on January 14, 1784 when Congress ratified the peace treaty signed in Paris on September 3, 1783.

William P. Kladky, Ph.D., revised by Zoie Horecny, Ph.D., 15 April 2025

Notes:

1. “Instructions from the Continental Congress, 22 June 1775,” Founders Online, National Archives.

2. “From George Washington to George Clinton, 4 March 1779,” Founders Online, National Archives.

3. “Circular to the States, 29 December 1777,” Founders Online, National Archives.

4. “To George Washington from Major General Nathanael Greene, 31 October 1780,” Founders Online, National Archives.

5. “Washington’s Farewell Address to the Army, 2 November 1783,” Founders Online, National Archives.

6. “Washington’s Sentiments on a Peace Establishment, 1 May 1783,” Founders Online, National Archives.

7. Ibid.

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